Injections of Medical Insights

Foodborne illness, commonly known as food poisoning, is the result of consuming contaminated, spoilt or toxic food.  This occurs due to the presence of bacteria, parasites or viruses in the food. Bacteria is the commonest culprit of food poisoning. These bacteria include E. coli, Listeria and Salmonella. Bacteria such as Salmonella most frequently infects a person who consumes raw food such as sashimi. Moreover, cooked food sometimes comes into contact with fecal matter, if the cook doesn’t wash their hands properly, and contain bacteria such as E. coli.  Symptoms of foodborne illnesses include abdominal pain, diarrhoea and vomiting, and fever. These symptoms can become life-threatening if the diarrhoea and vomiting leads to dehydration, or if the fever is very high.  Food poisoning will typically resolve itself with bed rest. However, as most cases are caused by bacteria, antibiotics may also be prescribed to deal with the illness. Good hygiene and proper cooking techniq...

IVF or In-vitro fertilisation is a type of assisted reproductive technology which aids couples with  fertility problems. The process requires retrieving eggs from the woman’s ovaries and fertilising them with sperm. The fertilised egg is called an embryo. Embryos can then be frozen and stored for future uses. When embryos are big enough, they can be implanted directly into the uterus; pregnancy continues normally thereafter. IVF is far more expensive and invasive compared to fertility treatments. Hence, it is advisable for couples to undergo fertility treatments and proceed with IVF should conceiving problems persist. Some examples include: reduced fertility in older women, blocked or damaged fallopian tubes and reduced ovarian function. https://www.mayoclinic.org/tests-procedures/in-vitro-fertilization/about/pac-20384716 https://www.healthline.com/health/in-vitro-fertilization-ivf https://m.youtube.com/watch?v=uXsCngh89fI https://www.stanfordchildrens.org/en/service/fertility-and-...

Dengue is a mosquito-borne infection endemic to Singapore and tropical regions worldwide. In most people it comes in the form of an unpleasant but self-limiting viral fever. Symptoms include headaches, vomiting, severe muscle and joint aches and a characteristic rash. A small proportion of cases develop into severe dengue which can cause life threatening bleeding. There is no specific treatment for dengue or dengue fever - however, patients with dengue might have to do a daily blood test to monitor their white blood cell count to ensure it does not drop to a dangerous level. In severe cases, patients may require hospitalisation and aggressive emergency treatment. There are 4 different serotypes of the dengue virus (DENV1-4) circulating so one can get infected up to 4 times. There is a dengue vaccination that is suitable for patients who have been infected with dengue before and has proved to be effective in protecting the patient against future infection. https://www.healthhub.sg/a-z/d...

In 1978, Dr. Pauline Rose Clance studied female undergraduate students about their feeling of incompetence despite their stellar results. These students experienced pervasive feelings of fraudulence regarding their achievements, and felt like they did not deserve their results. Some even went on to believe that their college acceptance letters were blunders due to administrative errors. This is known as imposter syndrome. There is no concrete causation between imposter syndrome and depression, anxiety and self-esteem. It is also not a disease, infection nor a psychological or neurological disorder. No form of achievement can dispel the feeling of incompetency and unaccomplishment. This is most prevalent in Albert Einstein and Maya Angelou. Extreme feelings of imposterism can prevent people from sharing their great ideas or taking opportunities where they will excel. Imposter syndrome is most effectively solved when an individual opens up to another individual suffering from imposter sy...

  Venous air embolism is the formation of air bubbles in the veins, causing a blood clot. It is  most common amongst divers or personnels which operate in regions of high pressures. Functionally, it is similar to pulmonary embolism, a venous blood clot, but the clot is an air bubble instead. The severity largely depends on the area clot. For example, the coronary arteries can fall victim to air embolism, which may cause a heart attack or an abnormal heart rhythm.  Signs and symptoms of an air embolism include: joint or muscle pain, blurred vision, breathlessness or fast breathing and an irregular heartbeat.  If a patient develops air embolism, the only effective treatment is immediate recompression treatment in a special pressurised room called the hyperbaric chamber. It involves breathing a mixture of gases and oxygen under pressure.After recompression, pressure is gradually reduced to allow the air to leave the body without worsening the situation. Prevention measu...

Schizophrenia Schizophrenia is a serious mental disorder in which people interpret reality abnormally, which can result in hallucinations, delusions, and disordered thinking and behaviour. The symptoms of schizophrenia are usually classified into: positive symptoms – any change in behaviour or thoughts, such as hallucinations or delusions. negative symptoms – where people appear to withdraw from the world around then, take no interest in everyday social interactions, and often appear emotionless and flat. There is no known cause of schizophrenia, and it can affect anyone at any age. However, symptoms of schizophrenia typically start in the mid-20s in male and in the late 20s for females. It is also hypothesised that factors such as consumption of psychoactive drugs and family history of schizophrenia can increase one’s risk of developing the condition.  Schizophrenics often require lifelong support from mental health teams, including psychiatrists, therapists and mental health nurs...

The practice of telemedicine has been on the rise in recent years. Telemedicine refers to the practice of caring for patients remotely through telecommunication mediums such as video-conferencing software.  Telemedicine has various benefits. Convenience is one of the biggest benefits of telemedicine, patients are able to consult doctors without having to travel or wait in line. Furthermore, this provides a much simpler way for doctors and patients to have follow-up consults, where a thorough examination may not be required and the doctor is simply checking on the patient.  However, the biggest criticism is that there are some extremely fundamental practices which are missing in telemedicine. Doctors are unable to carry out physical examinations on patients during such consults. As a result, doctors may miss out on certain diagnosis, such as hypertension, if the patient is unable to provide accurate information. Furthermore, telemedicine operates on patients administering their...

Amnesia is a form of memory loss, preventing the patient from recalling facts, information, experiences and even forming new memories. Conventionally, amnesiacs are usually portrayed as individuals who cannot remember their identity. However, amnesiacs usually retain knowledge of their own identity and various motor functions, hence they are still able to perform bodily functions such as walking (voluntary) and blinking (involuntary). Possible causes of neurological amnesia include: severe head damage, brain damage, stroke and long term alcohol abuse. Depending on the cause of the amnesia, other signs and symptoms may include: False memories (confabulation), Confusion or disorientation. https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/amnesia/symptoms-causes/syc-20353360 https://www.healthline.com/health/amnesia https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/21455-amnesia

Ankylosing spondylitis is an inflammatory disease which causes the bones in the spine to fuse over time. The fusing makes the spine less flexible and can result in a hunched posture.  People with the gene HBA-B27 have an increased risk of developing ankylosing spondylitis. However, not all with the gene develop the disease.  In the case of the “Folded Man”, he had suffered from this disease for 28 years, and was left unable to eat, drink or lift his head. Doctors conducted several osteotomies - where his bones were broken and reconstructed. The surgery allowed him to stand, however the condition still prevents him from doing simple motions such as moving his neck. Learn more about his case here . Sources: https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/ankylosing-spondylitis/symptoms-causes/syc-20354808 https://www.webmd.com/arthritis/what-is-ankylosing-spondylitis https://metro.co.uk/2019/12/16/man-stands-straight-28-years-surgeons-fix-back-11913152/ https://www.youtube.com/wa...

Sickle cell disease (SCD) is a group of inherited red blood cell disorders. In SCD, the red blood cells become hard and sticky and look like a C-shape. Patients with SCD can lead normal and healthy lives. SCD is a group of inherited red blood cell disorders. Healthy red blood cells are round, and they move through small blood vessels to carry oxygen to all parts of the body. The sickle cells die early, which causes a constant shortage of red blood cells. Also, when they travel through small blood vessels, they get stuck and clog up blood flow. SCD is commonly found at birth during routine newborn screening tests at the hospital. In addition, SCD can be diagnosed before birth. Because children with SCD are at an increased risk of infection and other health problems, early diagnosis and treatment are important. The only cure for SCD is bone marrow or stem cell transplant. Bone marrow is a soft, fatty tissue inside the center of the bones where blood cells are made. A bone marrow or stem ...

Addison’s disease is a rare disorder of the adrenal glands, it is when the body does not produce sufficient hormones such as:  cortisol, aldosterone and adrenaline. The adrenal glands are two small glands that sit on top of the kidneys, and are made up of the cortex and the medulla. In Addison's disease, the adrenal gland is damaged, and not enough cortisol (the primary stress hormone which increases glucose concentration in blood) and aldosterone (controls salt-water concentration and blood pressure) are produced. The condition is usually the result of a problem with the immune system, which causes it to attack the outer layer of the adrenal gland (the adrenal cortex), interfering the production of steroid hormones aldosterone and cortisol. Addison’s disease is treated with medication to replace the missing hormones. Patients need to take the medication for the rest of their lives. An adrenal crisis is a medical emergency and warning signs include severe nausea, confusion, fever, ...

Sleep plays a vital role in maintaining good health and well-being. The body naturally signals us to sleep through the release of hormones. When it gets dark, the body releases the hormone melatonin, which makes us feel drowsy. Likewise, as the sun rises, the body releases cortisol - the fight-or-flight hormone - which makes the body more active.  During sleep, there are still countless activities occurring in our body. The first is the release of hormones such as melatonin and growth hormone. The growth hormone allows the body to repair and grow. Anti-diuretic hormone is also released during sleep, which explains how one can usually get through the night without having to urine.  The immune system also releases cytokines during sleep. These proteins help the body fight inflammation, infection and trauma, allowing us to recover more quickly.  Lastly, sleep plays a major role in memory retention. Sleep protects new memories from disruption by interfering experiences during...

White Coat Syndrome Some people find that their blood pressure is normal when measured at home, but rises slightly when they are seeing a doctor. This is known as the white coat syndrome.  A healthy blood pressure reading is 120/80 mm Hg. However, white coat syndrome could make ones blood pressure higher than that. While some attribute the higher blood pressure reading to anxiety, one study found that people with white coat hypertension had a increased risk of stroke, heart attack, and heart failure. Another study found that death from heart disease was strongly attributed to white coat syndrome.  Among patients with a measured high blood pressure in the doctor’s office, around 15-30 percent would be due to white coat syndrome. However, this does not mean that one should not take the high blood pressure reading seriously. Often times, it can be a sign of disease or illness.  https://www.healthline.com/health/white-coat-syndrome#hypertension https://www.mayoclinic.org/dise...

Renal calculi, or kidney stones is the formation of crystals in the kidneys causing excretory issues. These stones mainly form in the renal pelvis or the ureter in the kidney. It is accompanied by symptoms such as nausea, vomiting and a burning sensation when urinating  Urine consists of salts and various compounds such as Calcium, Potassium, Sodium, Oxalate, Phosphate and Uric acid. Calcium oxalate is the most common stone formed in the kidneys, it accounts for 80% of kidney stones The crystals can scratch the walls of the urinary tract, sending nerve impulses to the brain causing excruciating abdominal pain. The scratches also cause blood vessels embedded behind the walls to burst, causing blood to enter the urinary system. This causes the patient to urinate blood. IF the stone is big enough to cause a blockage in the urinary tract, this can create a backflow of urine and infect the kidneys itselves. However, most kidney stones do not grow large enough to cause a blockage. This w...

Certain sites of the human body have immune privilege, meaning that they are able to tolerate the introduction of antigens without eliciting an inflammatory immune response.  The eye is a model example of a site with immune privilege. Immune privilege is important in the eye to protect it from destructive inflammation that may impair vision. Immune privilege in the eye is attributed to various mechanisms: lack of lymphatic drainage, low expression of MHC (major histocompatibility complex) molecules, and local production of immunosuppressive cytokines among others.  Research of immune privilege may lead to various medical breakthroughs. Once scientists understand how to induce immunological tolerance, and how exactly it works, it could be possible to disrupt the immune privilege seen in tumours and can also be used to prevent graft rejection by promoting immune privilege. Sources: https://www.nature.com/articles/mi200827 https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2195673/ htt...

As the name suggests, Appendicitis is the inflammation of the appendix, derived from the terms ‘Appendix’(the organ itself) and ‘Itis’(Inflammation).  The main cause of the disease is when a fecalith (an especially hard fecal material) gets stuck in a narrow pathway between the patient’s large intestine and a sac called the appendix. This blockage causes mucus and toxins to collect in the appendix, eventually causing it to swell up. It has to be treated as soon as possible before the sac bursts, infecting neighbouring organs. Appendicitis can be treated using a two step approach. The surgeon first inserts a tube through the skin and into the appendix, draining the abscess. Depending on whether the appendix has ruptured, the surgeon can conduct open surgery or a few small abdominal incisions (laparoscopic surgery) .  There is little risk post surgery when getting an appendectomy because the appendix has no known function. It is believed that the appendix is just a useless remna...

Accounting for 20.7% of deaths in Singapore in 2019, pneumonia is second most lethal disease in Singapore.  Pneumonia occurs when an infection causes inflammation of the alveoli in the lungs. The alveoli fill with fluid or pus. This causes coughing with phlegm or pus, fever, chills and difficulty breathing. It is most serious in infants, people above the age of 65 and in those with weakened immune systems.  Pneumonia can cause several life-threatening complications. Firstly, bacteria can enter the bloodstream from the lungs, causing a condition known as bacteremia. This allows the bacteria to spread to other organs. Furthermore, fluid can also accumulate in the pleural, and abscesses can form in the lungs.  Most patients will suffer from breathing difficulties. In severe instances, the patient may need to be hospitalised and use a ventilator to breathe. Bacterias and viruses are the commonest causes of pneumonia. Henceforth, the most effective way to combat pneumonia is t...

Just like our genes, humans have a significant variance in our sleep chronotypes.  Between a fifth and half of our chronotypes are fixed at birth, giving rise to the variance or peak performances throughout the day. Our genes differ greatly from one another, so does our circadian rhythm; they are 24-hour cycles that are part of the body’s internal clock, running backend to perform bodily functions and processes. This is why some people are considered “early birds” and some, “night owls”. Sleep chronotypes can also change over time due to environmental influences and age. During early adolescence, our “active periods” tend to skew more towards the night (Sleep late, wake up early), and revert back to the morning as we approach our twenties.  Chronic misalignment is generally associated with differences between an individual’s endogenous circadian system and external time cues. Commonly known circadian misalignments, such as jet-lag, night shifts and irregular hours are known t...

A collapsed lung, otherwise known as a pneumothorax, is a condition that occurs when air enters the pleural space (the space between the chest wall and the lung). The buildup of air results in an increase in pressure acting on the lung, causing it to collapse. The pressure also prevents the lung from expanding fully when inhaling.  As a result, presenting symptoms include a sudden attack of chest pain. This is followed by a steady ache in the chest, shortness of breath, cyanosis (turning blue) and severe tachycardia (fast heart rate).  There are two types of pneumothorax, traumatic pneumothorax and non-traumatic pneumothorax. Traumatic pneumothorax occurs after trauma or injury to the chest. The trauma can damage chest structures and cause air to leak into the pleural space. Traumatic pneumothorax is common in contact sports such as football or rugby.  On the other hand, non-traumatic pneumothorax occurs spontaneously. There are two furthers subcategories, primary spontan...